Appendix

The following topics supplement the analysis and action pages, offering learners profound insights into Buddha’s teachings. Click on a topic below to see more details.

The Buddha likened the Five Hindrances to obstacles of the mind that weaken wisdom. Therefore, we must live with a mind detached from them and purified of them. We must clearly understand what acts as “nutriment” (feeding them) and “non-nutriment” (starving them) so that the Five Hindrances do not arise, grow, or expand, allowing us to practice appropriate attention (Yoniso Manasikara).

1. Nutriments that cause the Five Hindrances to arise and grow:

  • Sensual Desire: The sign of the beautiful (Subha-nimitta) – attractive, pleasant, and delightful objects of the five senses related to desire.
  • Ill-will/Aversion: The sign of the repulsive (Patigha-nimitta) – objects that are unpleasant, disagreeable, or irritating.
  • Sloth and Torpor: Discontent, laziness, drowsiness, overeating, or a sluggish state of mind.
  • Restlessness and Remorse: An unsettled mind– a state of agitation, overthinking, and fabrication of delusive objects.
  • Doubt: Things that are bases for doubt– such as lack of faith in the Dhamma, lack of direction, or lack of self-confidence.
  • Note:If there is inappropriate attention(Ayoniso Manasikara), these act as nutriments that cause unarisen hindrances to arise and existing ones to grow and expand.

2. “Non-nutriments” (Antidotes) for the Five Hindrances:

  • Sensual Desire: The sign of the unattractive (Asubha-nimitta) – contemplation of the foulness of the body, contemplation of corpses, or the emptiness of the Four Elements.
  • Ill-will/Aversion:Loving-kindness(Metta) – the liberation of the heart through compassion for all sentient beings.
  • Sloth and Torpor: Arousal of energy (Viriyārambha) – the element of exertion and endeavor; focusing the mind on light and maintaining mindfulness and clear comprehension.
  • Restlessness and Remorse: Tranquillity of mind (Samatha) – an unagitated, calm, and quiet inner state.
  • Doubt:Clear discrimination– distinguishing between wholesome and unwholesome states, blameworthy and blameless, inferior and superior, and dark and bright qualities to eliminate hesitation.

Note: With appropriate attention (Yoniso Manasikara), these act as non-nutriments, preventing unarisen hindrances from arising and causing existing ones to be abandoned.

In the process of practice, when evil and unwholesome distractions (related to greed, hatred, and delusion) arise and disturb the mind, the Buddha taught five techniques to subdue them and stabilize the mind. Just as a skilled craftsman has specific tools for different materials, a practitioner should flexibly apply these five methods to achieve inner stillness and composure:

  1. Replacing the Object (Changing the Sign): Shift the mind’s focus from an unwholesome thought to a wholesome one. It is like a skilled carpenter using a small peg to knock out and drive out a larger one from a socket.
  2. Reflecting on the Danger: Contemplate the harmful consequences of unwholesome thoughts, seeing them as impure, blameworthy, and leading to suffering. It is like a young person who loves ornaments feeling horror and loathing when the carcass of a dog or a snake is hung around their neck.
  3. Ignoring and Disregarding: Pay no attention and give no thought to them. It is like a person who has eyes but does not wish to see objects appearing before them; they would close their eyes or look away to avoid notice.
  4. Analyzing the Cause (Stilling the Thought-Formation): Trace the origin and process of how the thought arose to see its lack of essence. As a result, the thoughts weaken and vanish. It is like a person running fast who asks, “Why am I running?” then slows to a walk, then stands, then sits, and finally lies down to find greater peace.
  5. Subduing with Resolve: If the above methods fail, the practitioner should clench their teeth, press the tongue against the roof of the mouth, and resolutely use the mind to crush the mind to subdue the unwholesome states. It is like a strong man seizing a weaker man by the head or shoulders to restrain and pin him down.

Refer to MN 20 Vitakkasanthana Sutta (The Removal of Distracting Thoughts)

How can we recognize a person’s true virtue in a world full of superficial appearances? In the Satta Jatila Sutta (SN 3.11), the Buddha taught four empirical methods to understand an individual’s true nature. This assessment is not based on mere appearance or fleeting words, but on deep observation and real-world experience:

1.Virtue is known through living together: It is only by living and interacting with someone over time that their true moral conduct and character become apparent.

2.Integrity is known through communication (dealings): Through personal contact, working together, and handling practical matters, we can recognize a person’s honesty, purity, or hidden motives.

3.Fortitude is known through adversity: When facing misfortune, hardships, or major life crises, a person’s inner strength and resilience are clearly revealed.

4.Wisdom is known through discussion: Through dialogue, the exchange of thoughts, and problem-solving, we can evaluate a person’s intellectual depth and understanding.

Crucial Note (The Essential Conditions):
Observing these four traits only yields accurate results when three conditions are met:

  • It must be over a long period(conclusions cannot be rushed).
  • It must be with attention(careful observation, not superficiality).

It must be by one with wisdom (the capacity to distinguish right from wrong, wholesome from unwholesome).

This is a very special discourse recording the encounter between the Buddha and the Venerable Pukkusāti in a potter’s workshop. The core of the sutta is a profound analysis of the Six Elements to achieve absolute tranquility.

1.Analysis of the Six Elements (Chadhātu):

The Buddha taught that a human being is composed of six elements:

  • Earth Element (Pathavī-dhātu):Whatever is solid or harsh (hair, body hair, nails, teeth, skin, flesh…).
  • Water Element (Āpo-dhātu):Whatever is liquid or cohesive (blood, sweat, tears…).
  • Fire Element (Tejo-dhātu):Whatever is thermal (body warmth, digestion…).
  • Air Element (Vāyo-dhātu):Whatever is mobile or in motion (breath, gases in the stomach…).
  • Space Element (Ākāsa-dhātu):The holes and hollows within the body (ear canals, nostrils, mouth…).
  • Consciousness Element (Viññāṇa-dhātu):The pure awareness or cognition that remains after abandoning attachment to the five elements above.

2.The Process of Contemplation:

  • The practitioner observes that each element (e.g., the Earth element), whether internal (within the body) or external (in nature), is “not mine, I am not this, this is not my self.“
  • From this realization, the mind becomes dispassionate and liberated toward the elements.

3.Ultimate Tranquility:

  • Having relinquished attachment to the six elements, the practitioner attains Purity of Equanimity (Upekkha-pārisuddhi).
  • They identify feelings (pleasant, painful, or neutral) but do not let them dominate; the mind dwells in stillness.

Finally, they understand: “Birth is ended, the holy life has been fulfilled”—attaining an unshakeable state, no longer moved by life and death.

T01

This discourse records the Buddha’s instructions on how to question and validate a monk’s claim to have attained Arahantship (Final Liberation):

1.The Four Modes of Cognition (The Four Bases of Knowledge): These are the four ways the six senses experience the six objects: The seen, the heard, the sensed, and the cognized. For an Arahant, the mind is pure; they see things exactly as they truly are. Therefore, they are not pulled in by greed, pushed away by aversion, dependent, or fettered. Their mind is liberated, without the duality of “Self and Phenomena.” Through this insight, their mind is freed from the fermentations (Āsavas), no longer clinging to these four modes of cognition.

2.The Five Aggregates of Clinging: Understanding their nature as unstable (impermanent), subject to decay, devoid of greed, and providing no true refuge (no real consolation). Because an Arahant clearly sees the nature of the five aggregates, their mind practices “Cessation, Dispassion, Extinction, and Relinquishment” toward all clinging, attachment, establishment, and the underlying tendencies (Anusaya) regarding the five aggregates. Thus, their mind is freed from the fermentations and no longer clings to them.

3.The Six Elements (Earth, Water, Fire, Air, Space, and Consciousness): These elements have no “Self,” and an Arahant does not regard them as their “Self.” By seeing the six elements as they truly are, the Arahant’s mind practices “Cessation, Dispassion, Extinction, and Relinquishment” toward all clinging, attachment, establishment, and underlying tendencies regarding these elements. Thus, their mind is freed from the fermentations and no longer clings to the six elements.

4.The Six Internal and External Sense Bases: When the sense bases meet their objects, Perception (Saññā) arises. Understanding their true nature, the Arahant has eradicated, abandoned, and relinquished all sensual desire, greed, delight, and craving, as well as the underlying tendencies toward these phenomena. Consequently, their mind is freed from the fermentations and no longer clings to these perceptions.

5.The Path of Practice (Overcoming Conceit): The method of practice ensures that when the conscious body contacts the external world, conceit (Māna), the “I-making” obsession, and the underlying tendency of conceit do not arise. An Arahant fully understands the practical roadmap: from going forth into homelessness and maintaining pure virtue, to guarding the sense faculties, practicing mindfulness and clear comprehension, until attaining the Jhanas and the Knowledge of the Destruction of the Fermentations). Therefore, they can speak of these matters without fault.

Upon hearing a noble disciple answer these five points clearly and completely, we should express our appreciation by saying “Sadhu” (Excellent) and add: “It is a gain for us, a great gain for us, that we have come to know a person of such perfected holy life as the Venerable One.”

1. Developing the Four 4 Foci of Mindfulness (Satipatthana) to fulfill the 7 Factors of Enlightenment (Seven Bojjhanga):
This process begins when one dwells contemplating the Body in the Body, ardent, clearly comprehending, and mindful, subduing greed and distress with regard to the world:

  • Mindfulness: When mindfulness is established firmly and without distraction, at that moment, the Mindfulness Factor of Enlightenmentarises and is developed to fulfillment.
  • Investigation of Dhamma: Dwelling with mindfulness, the practitioner uses wisdom to discriminate, select, observe, and investigate those dhammas. At that moment, the Investigation of Dhamma Factor of Enlightenmentarises.
  • Energy: When the practitioner constantly investigates and penetrates those dhammas with wisdom, unwearied energy is aroused. At that moment, the Energy Factor arises.
  • Rapture: As energy is maintained, non-material rapture (born of seclusion from sensual desires) arises in the energetic person. At that moment, the Rapture Factorarises.
  • Tranquillity: For one whose mind is full of rapture, both the body and mind become calm and light. At that moment, the Tranquillity Factor of Enlightenmentarises.
  • Concentration : When the body and mind are tranquil, the practitioner easily achieves a state of stillness and one-pointedness. At that moment, the Concentration Factor arises.
  • Equanimity: When the mind is concentrated, the practitioner skillfully observes with a mind of equanimity (neither clinging nor pushing away). At that moment, the Equanimity Factor arises.

Note: The practitioner follows the same process when mindfulness relates to feelings, mental states, or mental phenomena.

2. Developing the Seven Factors of Enlightenment to Fulfill True Knowledge and Liberation:
For the Seven Factors of Enlightenment to lead to the final fruit, the practitioner must develop them based on:

  • Dependent on Seclusion: Distancing from hindrances and unwholesome states.
  • Dependent on Dispassion: Eradicating desire and attachment.
  • Dependent on Cessation: Aiming for the end of suffering.
  • Resulting in Letting Go: Completely relinquishing all clinging.

When the Seven Factors of Enlightenment are developed in this direction, they lead to the fulfillment of True Knowledge and Liberation.

The Buddha taught (*)

Therefore, Ananda, be a light unto yourself, be your own refuge, having no other refuge; let the Dhamma be your light, take the Dhamma as your refuge, having no other refuge. And how, Ananda, is a monk a light unto himself… taking the Dhamma as his refuge?

Here, Ananda, a monk dwells contemplating the body in the body, ardent, clearly comprehending, and mindful, removing covetousness and displeasure concerning the world; he dwells contemplating feelings in feelings… the mind in the mind… and dhammas in dhammas, ardent, clearly comprehending, and mindful, removing covetousness and displeasure concerning the world. In this way, Ananda, a monk is a light unto himself, a refuge unto himself, having no other refuge; taking the Dhamma as his light and the Dhamma as his refuge, having no other refuge.

For those who live in this way, they should wisely investigate: ‘From what source do sorrow, lamentation, pain, distress, and despair arise? What causes them to exist?’

Monks, knowing that Form (Feeling, Perception, Mental Formations, Consciousness) is impermanent, changing, fading away, and ceasing; one sees all Form, past and present, as impermanent, suffering, and subject to change. By seeing it as it truly is with right wisdom, sorrow, lamentation, pain, distress, and despair are abandoned. Because they are abandoned, one does not worry. Being free from worry, one lives at ease. Living at ease, a monk is called Tadanganibbuto—one who is cooled in that factor, leaning towards Nirvana.

Commentary:

  • (*) DN 16 Mahāparinibbāna Sutta (The Great Discourse on the Buddha’s Last Days), SN 47.13 Cunda Sutta (The Discourse about Cunda), and SN 22.43 Attadīpa Sutta (The Discourse on Being be a light unto yourself)
  • The “torch” or “light” here is Wisdom—the clear, pure, eternal, and unchanging knowing. It is the clear comprehension and mindfulness used to observe the arising and passing away of all phenomena through the practice of the Four Foci of Mindfulness—specifically mindfulness of breathing—to subdue covetousness and displeasure in this world.

Recognizing the Impermanence and Change in all things,

Seeing the Truth clearly leads the mind to Dispassion.

In the letting go of attachment, all Suffering comes to an end

The Buddha taught the Kālāma people of Kesaputta town not to believe or follow something blindly just because of:

  1. Oral report (Anussavena).
  2. Legend or tradition (Paramparāya).
  3. Rumor or hearsay (Itikirāya).
  4. Scriptural authority (Piṭakasampadānena).
  5. Logical reasoning (Takkahetu).
  6. Inference or analogy (Nayahetu).
  7. Superficial observation of data (Ākāraparivitakkena).
  8. Agreement with preconceived notions (Diṭṭhinijjhānakkhantiyā).
  9. The apparent competence of the source (Bhabbarūpatāya).
  10. The thought: “This ascetic is our teacher” (Samaṇo no garūti).

Instead, one should only believe and practice when one realizes for oneself (Attanāva jāneyyātha):

  1. When you clearly know things are Unwholesome: They are blameworthy (Sāvajjā), criticized by the wise; if undertaken and followed, they lead to harm and suffering—Abandon them!
  2. When you clearly know things are Wholesome: They are blameless (Anavajjā), praised by the wise; if undertaken and followed, they lead to happiness and well-being—Enter and abide in them!

Note: In this era of advanced AI, applying these teachings to daily life will certainly help us navigate the vast amount of misleading information that can lead to wrong actions

1. Gratification, Danger, and Escape (AN 3.103 Pubbevasambodhasutta – Before Awakening):
The Buddha recounts His thoughts prior to Enlightenment to understand the true nature of the world:

  • Gratification (Assāda):The pleasure and joy that arise dependent on the world. Because of this gratification, sentient beings become attached and bound.
  • Danger (Ādīnava):The nature of impermanence, suffering, and change inherent in all things. By recognizing this danger, sentient beings develop disenchantment.
  • Escape (Nissaraṇa):The removal and abandonment of desire and lust for the world. This is the path to true freedom.
  • Supreme Awakening:By knowing these three as they really are (Yathābhūtaṃ pajānāti), one achieves:

– Unshakable Liberation of Mind: The self-realized knowledge arises: “This is my last birth; now there is no more rebirth.”

– Liberated Mind: Dwelling in freedom, detached, and unconfined by the world.

2.The Danger of an Unguarded Mind (AN 3.107 KūṭāgāraSutta – Unprotected):
(The Blessed One’s teaching to the householder Anathapindika)
Just as a peaked house with a poorly thatched roof will have rotting rafters and walls, when the MIND is unguarded:

  • Bodily, verbal, and mental actionsare also unguarded.
  • These actions become saturated with lustand “leak” (overflowing with taints/āsava).
  • Actions become corrupted, leading to moral and spiritual decay.

The Result: One’s passing (death) will be neither peaceful nor auspicious.

The Buddha taught the monks ten core points to define the operation of the mind and the path to liberation:

  1. 1.Desire as the root (Chandamūlakā): All phenomena are rooted in desire—the initial will or motivation to act.
  2. 2.Attention as the origin (Manasikārasambhavā): All phenomena arise through attention and the directing of the mind toward an object.
  3. 3.Contact as the source (Phassasamudayā): The meeting of the Senses, Objects, and Consciousness is the origin of all mental phenomena.
  4. 4.Feeling as the convergence (Vedanāsamosaraṇā): All experiences converge in feelings (pleasant, painful, or neither-pleasant-nor-painful).
  5. 5.Concentration as the head (Samādhipamukhā): Concentration leads and masters all mental states.
  6. 6.Mindfulness as the governing factor (Satādhipateyyā): Mindfulness plays the dominant role in controlling and guarding the mind from being pulled away by delusions.
  7. 7.Wisdom as the supreme (Paññāttarā): Wisdom is the highest insight, penetrating the true nature of all things: Impermanence, Suffering, and Non-self.
  8. 8.Liberation as the heartwood (Vimuttisārā): The core purpose and true value of practice is freedom and liberation from all fetters.
  9. 9.The Deathless as the footing (Amatogadhā): The deep foundation toward which all phenomena flow is the state of the Unborn and Unaging.
  10. Nirvana as the final goal (Nibbānapariyosānā): The total cessation of suffering and craving is the ultimate destination of all efforts.

In the Nikaya Canon, the Buddha taught seriously ill disciples to contemplate the mind in order to maintain mindfulness while experiencing excruciating sensations during their final moments.

I. Practice for Dealing with Feelings (SN 36.7 Gelañña Sutta):

When facing any feeling (Pleasant, Painful, or Neither-pleasant-nor-painful), one must maintain Direct Knowledge (Pajānāti):

  • Impermanence: Clearly seeing that this feeling is subject to change and instability.
  • Non-attachment: The mind does not cling to pleasant sensations and does not repel painful ones.
  • Non-delight: Not letting the mind be led by liking or disliking toward feelings.
  • Result: The feeling is experienced with the mindset of a free person, unbound by fetters.

II.The Final Subsiding:

When feelings reach the ultimate limit of the body and life, one knows clearly:

  • “I am feeling a sensation terminating in the body and life.”
  • “After the breaking up of the body, all feelings that were not worthy of delight will become cool (subside into tranquility).”

III. The Simile of the Oil Lamp:

Just as an oil lamp burns dependent on oil and a wick; when the oil is exhausted, the wick is burnt out, and no more fuel is added, the lamp goes out. Likewise, when the fuel of craving and clinging is removed, feelings will naturally subside as the body disintegrates.

IV. Related Scriptures on Care for the Dying and Feelings:

  • SN 12.51 (Parivīmaṃsana Sutta): A deep analysis of dependent origination and the cessation of suffering.
  • SN 54.8 (Dīpa Sutta): The similarity between the breath, feelings, and the extinguishing of a lamp.

In the final stage of life or when suffering from grave illness, a patient easily falls into mental agitation due to:

  • Doubt about the Dhamma or regret over uncompleted tasks.
  • Clinging to the body when facing the fierce feelings of the body and life.
    The presence and guidance of a spiritual friend in whom the patient has settled faith at this moment is an immeasurable blessing, helping them calmly observe the arising and passing of all phenomena in tranquility.

As in the case of the householder Anāthapiṇḍika, when he was gravely ill and enduring excruciating pain, he requested Venerable Sāriputta and Venerable Ānanda to come for a final guidance.

Venerable Sāriputta instructed the householder Anāthapiṇḍika to let go of all clinging:

  • Six Internal Bases (Senses): “I will not cling to the eye (ear, nose, tongue, body, mind), and I will not have consciousness dependent on the eye…”
  • Six External Bases (Objects): Not being attached to Forms, Sounds, Odors, Tastes, Tangibles, Mental objects.
  • Five Aggregates: Not regarding Form, Feeling, Perception, Formations, Consciousness as “I” or “My self”.

After hearing the guidance, the householder Anāthapiṇḍika was moved to tears because it was the first time he had heard such a profound discourse, and he requested the Venerables to share this Dhamma with all laypeople because there are those with wisdom who can understand and attain benefits.

Shortly after Venerable Sāriputta and Venerable Ānanda left, the householder Anāthapiṇḍika passed away and was reborn in the Tusita Heaven. He then appeared as a young Deva to pay homage to the Blessed One and praise the wisdom of Venerable Sāriputta.
Note: MN 143 Anāthapiṇḍikovādasutta (Instructions to Anāthapiṇḍika)